1. The historical significance of forests in Armenia
Armenia is located in the Southern Caucasus mountains and north-east of the Armenian highlands. It contains two terrestrial ecoregions: the Caucasus mixed forests and the Armenian highlands mountain steppe.
The variety of tree species in the forests of Armenia has changed many times through the ages. According to palaeobotanical data, around 170 species have been found in sedimentary rocks at different geological periods in the territory of Armenia. Of those species, only 47 are preserved in the current diversity of forest species. The current dendro-diversity of Armenia was formed in the Miocene, including the main masses of the forest. In the Miocene, the species composition of the forest was replenished with species introduced from the Mediterranean region.
At the end of the Miocene, the types of boreal vegetation /awn-leaved and field maple, small-leaved linden, etc./ entered from the north. Areas occupied by forests of evergreen coniferous and broad-leaved deciduous species were destroyed and replaced by xerophilic plant species entering from the south. As a result of the drying of the Pliocene climate, moisture-loving subtropical plants were eliminated from the forest vegetation and deciduous and frost-resistant species spread, including Greek walnut, beech, Georgian maple, etc.
In the post-glacial period, the range of tree species underwent a process of xerophytization, during which more drought-resistant species were introduced from Asia. As a result of subsequent climate changes, the current forest landscape ecosystems of Armenia were formed. Data from various research studies show that in the early anthropogenic period, about 40 percent of the current territory of Armenia was covered with forests. Forests ranged from 500–600 metres to 1800–2000 metres. Later, as a result of the drying of the climate, the upper altitude limit of forests increased to 2100–2700 metres.
Armenia’s current forestless areas were covered with forests in the ancient past. This is evidenced by ancient historians and the remains of forests. Artificial forests were planted under the patronage and initiative of the Armenian kings. One example is Khosrovakert forest, planted during the reign of King Khosrov II (332–338), which was surrounded by walls and inhabited by animals and birds, and is now known as Khosrov State Reserve and is protected by the government. A significant proportion of Armenia’s forests was destroyed during foreign invasions in the Middle Ages
According to the National Forest Inventories during the Soviet period, the forest cover has decreased from approximately 40 percent of Armenia during the first three millennia B.C., to 8.1 percent during the 1950s, 11.2 percent during the 1990s, to 7–8 percent today.
Due to the energy crisis and economic blockade of the 1990s, mass illegal logging of forests took place, as a result of which significant areas of the forest fund were reduced, low-value forests increased, and the hydrological regime of the forest was disturbed, leading to more erosion, landslides and floods.
2. Current forest situation
Armenia is a lightly forested country with rich biodiversity. According to the last forest inventory of 1993, forest land makes up 459,900 ha, of which over 73 percent or 334,100 ha is covered with forest. Overall, the inventory showed forest coverage of 11.2 percent for the country. However, the inventory was done before the economic turmoil of the 1990s and there have been notable changes in the forest cover since then. International organisations have made more recent estimates of the forest cover in the country and they have given much lower estimates – approximately 7–8 percent.
Today 62 percent of the forest cover is found in the northeast (Tavush, Lori provinces), 36 percent in the southeast (Syunik, Vayoc Dzor province), and only 2 percent in the central region of the country (Aragatcotn, Gegharkunik provinces).
Forests
Armenia is described as having six distinct landscape zones: desert, semi-desert, steppe, forest, subalpine, and alpine regions. Armenia is located at the junction of the biogeographic zones of the Lesser Caucasus and the Iranian and Mediterranean zones, and exhibits both a great range of altitudinal variation (from 375 m to the 4,095 m peak of Mt. Aragats) and a diversity of climatic zones. Together this has resulted in a diversity of landscapes and ecological communities with a distinct flora and fauna, including many regionally endemic, relict and rare species. While encompassing only five percent of the Caucasus area, Armenia incorporates nearly every type of vegetation ecosystem found in the southern Caucasus, reflecting the great altitudinal variation and consequent contrast of distinct ecosystems within limited areas.
The forest lands of Armenia are characterized by rich natural resources and biodiversity. In these lands 274 types of native trees and shrubs can be found, of which 25 are endemic and 31 relict species. The main forest-bearing species are beech, oak, eastern hornbeam and pine.
3. Forests and nature conservation
According to the Republic of Armenia’s Forest Code, forests are classified as protective (water preservation, soil stabilisation, climate regulation, etc.) special-purpose forests (reserves, national parks, state wildlife sanctuaries), where only sanitary cutting is allowed, except in those reserves where even sanitary felling is not allowed. There is no formal production harvesting, only so-called sanitary cutting that is intended to prevent damage from pests, disease or that is justified for other forest protection reasons. All forests in Armenia are state owned.
To conserve biodiversity and ecosystems, specially protected nature areas are designated, where economic activity in a specific natural area is prohibited or limited (depending on the protection regime). Specially protected areas ensure the conservation of unique ecosystems and the reproduction of endangered, extinct, endemic and relict species in their natural environment. To protect forest ecosystems in Armenia there are three types of nature preservation levels: state reserves, national parks and state wildlife sanctuaries. Two forest ecosystems in Armenia are protected as state reserves: Shikahogh and Khosrov. There are also two national parks – Dilijan and Arevik – as well as 19 state wildlife sanctuaries.
Khosrov State Reserve
4. Role of forests in Armenia
Because of low forest cover in the country, and climate change vulnerability, the role of forests in Armenia is especially important.
The three main functions performed by a forest ecosystem are protective, productive and social. Forest structure is both a product and a driver of ecosystem processes and biological diversity.
Forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services. In addition to providing food (wild fruits, nuts, berries, herbs), fuel and timber, forests clean the air, filter water supplies, control floods and erosion, sustain biodiversity and genetic resources, and provide opportunities for recreation, education and cultural enrichment.
Supporting services are essential for the production of all other ecosystem services. Supporting services provided by trees include photosynthesis, soil formation, nutrient and water cycling, and habitats and food for wildlife. Forests in Armenia provide significant inputs to biodiversity conservation, the national economy, rural livelihoods and cultural traditions. Forests also represent an important reservoir of sequestered carbon and provide a wide range of ecosystem services, e.g., clean water, erosion control and wildlife habitat. The forests of Armenia provide significant economic, environmental, social, and cultural benefits. Beyond their recreational and aesthetic significance, forests maintain water balance in the ecosystem, improve soil fertility for greater agricultural production, and protect against topsoil erosion and flooding. Forests also reduce the depositing of sediments in Lake Sevan, which helps counteract water pollution, protects wildlife habitats, and keeps water levels stable. Trees and underbrush also capture and store CO2 from the atmosphere – which is crucial for preventing climate change.
Thus, ecosystem services may be grouped into four broad categories:
- production of ecosystem goods, such as the production of wood, food and water;
- regulating, such as the regulation of climate, control of disease;
- supporting, such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production, formation and retention of soils, the generation and maintenance of biodiversity;
- cultural, such as recreational benefits, aesthetic beauty, together with intellectual and spiritual stimulation, as well as educational and scientific.
According to the World Bank report each hectare of Armenian forests may provide on average $417 per year in total value from a number of ecosystem services (or $138 million annually). This requires sustainable forest management and the control and monitoring of forests.
Over the last three decades Armenian forests have been degraded considerably – mainly by illegal logging, fuel wood extraction, overgrazing, trampling, open mining and fires. Deforestation and forest degradation lead to the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, to reduced human well-being, and to the release of greenhouse gases. One of the root causes of forest degradation processes in Armenia is the lack of sustainable forest management, and lack of responsible and sustainable forest management standards and practices at public forestry units.
Dilijan National Park
Summary
Under the framework of the Climate Change Convention, Armenia committed to increasing its forest cover to 20.1 percent by 2050, which means an increase in area of around 265,000 ha. There is currently insufficient available forest land in Armenia to achieve this target. To achieve this goal, it is important to create conditions for the planting of forests on communal and private land. Reforestation is a critical part of the solution to climate change, and restoring previously degraded ecosystems provides essential habitat for threatened species. Better forest management, protection, control and monitoring could offer Armenia significant economic returns and position the country as a leader in conservation and climate change adaptation.
Nazeli Vardanyan, PhD in Environmental Law
“Armenian Forests” Environmental NGO
nazelivardanyan1@gmail.com
