Forests in Croatia: state, threats and role in the fight against climate change

Burnt forest in Murter Croatia August 2024.

Forests in Croatia: state, threats and role in the fight against climate change

Forests and forest lands cover almost half (47.5%) of the land area of the Republic of Croatia. According to the ownership structure, 76%, or slightly more than two million hectares, are state forests, which are mainly managed by the company Hrvatske šume (73%), while 3% are managed by other state institutions (protected areas or special-purpose forests), and 24% or over 660 thousand hectares of forests are in the hands of private forest owners.

Unlike many European countries, Croatian foresters have managed to preserve their forest ecosystems in optimal condition, and today forests are one of the country’s greatest natural assets. Local foresters can proudly claim that for centuries they have been implementing what is known today as close-to-nature sustainable management. Consequently, forests in Croatia are known for their naturalness, since they regenerate naturally through self-seeding, resulting in mixed forests of native species, in contrast to many European forests that were established by planting and as a result have become monocultures.

Healthy natural forests are crucial for the preservation of biodiversity and the fight against climate change

Ninety-seven species of trees grow in Croatia, and the total number of trees exceeds 2.8 billion, as reported by the First National Forest Inventory of the Republic of Croatia (Čavlović, 2010). According to the estimate from this report, the forests of Croatia capture about 640 million tons of carbon, making them a particularly important source of carbon storage. In addition, the forest soil is the largest carbon storage area, capturing approximately 50%, while living trees capture one-third of the total stored carbon. It is estimated that 126.3 million tons of carbon are stored in private forests – about 20% of the total. For the conservation of biodiversity, dead wood is especially important and forests in Croatia contain around 33 million cubic metres of dead wood, of which 19 million is lying and 14 million is standing.

Based on the long tradition of sustainable forest management and considering the immediate global changes occurring in forest ecosystems, Croatia currently represents an “island” of preserved natural forests of high biological diversity.

The main bearer of economic functions in the forests of Croatia is the pedunculate oak. In terms of area, it ranks second after the common beech, covering an area of 210,000 hectares, but in terms of economic importance it comes first, with a share of 44% of the income from all sold logs.

Additionally, these forests play a significant role in nature protection. Close-to-nature management is especially necessary for maintaining their structure and functions in a balanced state. Thus, the basic forestry credo of permanent sustainability, biological resistance, naturalness, and preservation of the multiple functions of non-harvested forests can be preserved.

Croatian forestry professionals realised very early that wood resources should only be used to the extent that does not threaten their survival and that forests must be managed in a sustainable manner that is socially beneficial, economically profitable, and ecologically acceptable.

As the Republic of Croatia is susceptible to climate change and since it largely belongs to the Mediterranean region, climate changes will have profound impact on ecosystem integrity, and vulnerability to climate changes is assessed as high. Sectors that are highly dependent on climate factors, such as agriculture, forestry, fishing and tourism, are particularly vulnerable.

In addition to being a pool of biodiversity, healthy forests play a key role in mitigating climate change by acting as carbon sinks, absorbing billions of metric tons of CO₂ annually.

Land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) is one of the most significant sectors in terms of contribution to meeting the European Union’s goal of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Policies and measures to reduce emissions and mitigate climate change serve to fulfil the international obligations of the Republic of Croatia under the UNFCCC and the EU acquis and are the starting point for the long-term development of the low-emission economy.

Calculations of emissions and removals of greenhouse gases in Croatia for the period from 1990 to 2020 are presented in the 8th National Communication and 5th Biennial Report of the Republic of Croatia under the UNFCCC (2024). Total emissions of greenhouse gases, excluding removals by sinks, in 2020 amount to 23,758.40 million t CO₂e, which represents a reduction of emissions by 24.3% compared to emissions of greenhouse gases in 1990.

Table 1: Emissions/removals of GHGs by sectors for the period from 1990 to 2010 (kt CO₂e)

Source: Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development

Table 2: Emissions/removals of GHGs by sectors for the period from 2015 to 2020 (kt CO₂e)

As stated in the 8th National Communication and 5th Biennial Report of the Republic of Croatia under the UNFCCC, the estimate of emissions/removals in the LULUCF sector for the period 1990 to 2020 is a result of application of prescribed IPCC methodology and the estimate of emissions and removals carried out for LULUCF land categories, where: a) there are no land changes and b) on lands that have been converted to/from other land-use categories (LUC).

As stated in Climate Action Progress Report 2023 based on final inventory data, in 2021, Croatia reported net removals of 5.80 MtCO₂-eq in the land use, land-use change, and forestry sector (LULUCF). In 2022, Croatia reported the same numbers as for 2021. With current LULUCF accounting rules – with a limited scope – applicable to the period 2021 to 2025, the provisional “accounted” balance for 2021 using the 2023 GHG inventory submission produced an accounted credit of 1.5 MtCO₂-eq.

In 2023, Croatia reported 101 single policies and measures (PaMs), representing an increase of 3% compared to 2021. As of 2023, 37% of the reported PaMs are planned but not yet implemented.

Private forest owners in Croatia, their potential and problems in exercising ownership rights

Most European forests are private, so forest owners play a crucial role in achieving sustainable forest management. Besides providing wood and other goods and services, they contribute significantly to rural development and meeting growing demands for forest resources. Around 16 million of them together hold over 60% of the forest and forest land.

Croatia, however, does not manage its private forests satisfactorily. There are several reasons for this, including the systematic neglect of private ownership, the small size of private forests, and the absence of records of ownership. The neglect of private forestry is reflected in legal regulations that treat all forest owners equally, regardless of the size of their forests or the fact that some forest owners may lose interest or the ability and knowledge to implement management programmes. It is also sometimes difficult to implement management programmes due to unclear ownership and fragmented holdings. According to estimates, there are around 600,000 forest owners in Croatia who own 1.5 million cadastral plots averaging 0.74 hectares. Owners have on average two dislocated parcels, property boundaries are unclear, and ownership is uncertain. More than 85% of private owners own properties under one hectare.

Research published in the doctoral dissertation “Private forest management models in Croatia regarding owner attitudes and forest property characteristics” (Žunić, 2018), which is among the first studies to examine this topic, reveals that the majority of forest owners in Croatia (up to 90%) use their forests for personal needs. This mainly refers to firewood, production of logs for personal use, industrial wood for sale, wood for energy production (including charcoal) for sale, hunting, nature conservation, non-timber forest products and tourism.

The results of the analysed literature show that private forest owners in Croatia face numerous problems that are the result of political neglect of private forest ownership over a long period of time. Small and dispersed ownership of forests, usually by a number of owners, makes it difficult to manage forests in an economically sustainable way. Studies show that most forest owners are ready to join and cooperate with other forest owners and produce wood for energy, but generally under certain conditions, such as financial support or with the existence of a stable market.

The survey was conducted during 2017 and 2018 in the entire area of ​​Croatia to collect a representative sample that would enable the presentation of the profile of private forest owners in Croatia, i.e. their socio-demographic characteristics and goals and motivations towards management, and ultimately a total sample of 1,449 was collected.

According to the survey results, the forest owners are mostly retired, men, over 50 years old, with a high school diploma and low personal income, and they live in the same location as the forest. In addition, the largest number of forests is found in the category of up to one hectare. Private forests are mostly acquired by inheritance and managed independently. Forest owners generally know the boundaries of their forests, which are divided into three or more parts. They live in small communities near their forests, which they have owned for more than 10 years. About 60% of forest owners are unwilling to join forces with other forest owners for the purpose of management and most of them are unfamiliar with opportunities to use incentives for forestry. About 67% of forest owners believe that it is necessary to introduce monitoring for private forests, which should be financed by the state.

By investigating the motivations, preferences and goals of private forest owners towards management, it has been shown that forest owners in Croatia fully accept the concept of sustainable forest management. For them, managing the forest means applying various social, economic and environmental management principles. The principles they prioritise most highly relate to capital management, the basis for obtaining subsidies, good business opportunities and the possibility of earning, as well as good opportunities to provide an additional source of income and an increase in the household budget. Furthermore, ownership of the forest, care of borders, decision-making on the management of forest stands, management of the forest ecosystem, and imitation of natural processes in the forest and ensuring natural renewal are extremely important for forest owners in Croatia.

The goals of ownership, or the reasons why forest owners own the forest, mostly centre on family heritage and economic activities, while to a lesser extent they are motivated by recreation and conservation.

Establishing and supporting a balance between the ecological and silvicultural needs of forests, and the interests and demands of forest owners and the community are the fundamental challenges of managing private forests. Consequently, when planning the management of private forests, the characteristics and demands of the forest owners should be considered.

The potential of private forests in Croatia, both economic and ecological, has not been sufficiently used, and the demands of society regarding the needs of forest resources are increasingly clear. Hence, it is necessary to understand how forest owners manage their forests because the decisions they make have a direct impact on the ecosystem.

Threats to forests in Croatia

Croatia is very diverse and consists of four biogeographical regions: Alpine, Continental, Mediterranean, and Pannonian. The Mediterranean region has a high fire risk, but the rest of the area is covered in native deciduous broadleaved forests, where the risk is low. Most of the fires in the Mediterranean area begin in neglected agricultural areas before spreading to forest areas (mostly pine forests).

As a result of climate change, Mediterranean forests on the Croatian coast are becoming more vulnerable and sensitive. During the summer, forest fires in the coastal part of Croatia often reach catastrophic proportions and destroy vegetation, often endangering populated areas and human lives.

The report on the state of the environment in the Republic of Croatia 2017–2020 predicts that in the long term the availability of water will decrease in this area, and with the lack of precipitation and increased temperatures already recorded in Europe and specifically in the Mediterranean areas, fire risks will increase even further. According to the report, the fire weather index shows that the fire season has been extended and the likelihood of vegetation fires has increased over the last 30 years. According to the Croatian Fire Association, 3,013 vegetation fires were reported in Croatia in 2023, burning 5,251 hectares. The number of fires in open spaces increased significantly in 2024 with 4,300 reported outdoor fires between 1 January and 19 August. Compared to last year, this represents a 26% increase. Moreover, the total burned area has increased by 430% to 20,907 hectares.

Aside from forest fires and extreme droughts, forest function and quality are undermined by plant diseases, forest pests, and human activities (air pollution, soil acidification, and changes in flood regimes). Combined, these pressures result in a high level of forest ecosystem vulnerability.

To protect nature and reduce negative impacts on ecosystems, the EU has outlined key goals and protection measures. Currently, 38.1% of Croatia’s terrestrial territory is designated as protected areas, which is significantly higher than the current EU value of 26.4% and the EU target to reach 30% by 2030, as set by the EU Biodiversity Strategy. Almost 50% of all the Natura 2000 sites in Croatia are on forest land, of which 200,000 hectares are privately owned.

Despite the long tradition of sustainable and natural forestry in Croatia, due to the implementation of revised green policies as part of the EU Green Plan, pressure on forests in Croatia continues to grow. With the adoption of the EU Biodiversity Strategy and the resulting Forest Strategy, local forests are being subjected to increasing protection requirements. The fact that they have been well managed in the past contributes to the fact that they remain natural and diverse.

In the context of nature protection measures, forest owners have limited rights over the disposition of their land and taking these measures would result in a direct loss of income for the owners, which should be compensated fairly.

Although member states have the option of using EU funds to pay compensation, in Croatia, whose forestry legislation is reputed to be one of the most restrictive in the EU, compensation was deemed unnecessary until recently and no funds were earmarked for forest owners. Due to the efforts of the Croatian Union of Private Forest Owners’ Associations, compensation will be provided for forest management restrictions in the new financial period with the purpose of maintaining practices and increasing interest in sustainable forest management and biodiversity among forest owners.

It is important to remember that the preservation of biodiversity in Croatian forests is a result of long-term sustainable and socially responsible forest management led by local forestry experts and forest owners, and not restrictions under legal acts.

Literature:

• Management of forest wealth - Handbook for forest owners, Authors: Dubravac T., Vlašić M., Županić M., Publisher: Croatian Union of Private Forest Owners' Associations, 2023
• Čavlović, J., 2010. The First National Forest Inventory of the Republic of Croatia. Ministry of Regional Development, Forestry and Water Management and Faculty of Forestry, University of Zagreb.
• 8th National Communication and 5th Biennial Report of the Republic of Croatia under the UNFCCC, Publisher: Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development, Republic of Croatia, 2024
• Žunić, M. (2018). Private forest management models in Croatia regarding owner attitudes and forest property characteristics, (Dissertation). University of Zagreb, Faculty of Forestry
• Report on the State of the Environment in the Republic of Croatia in the Period 2017-2020, Publisher: Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development, 2022
• The Croatian Firefighting Association website: https://hvz.gov.hr/